terms

2. metalinguistic awareness: the ability to treat lg as an object, for example, being able to define a word,or to say what sounds make up that word.

3. simultaneous bilinguals: the acquisition of two lges at the same time both as first lges, for example, before a child is three years old.

4. sequential bilinguals: children those who being to learn a second lg later are referred to as “sequention bilinguals”.

5. subtractive bilingualism: the first lg is partially or completely lost as a second lg is acquired. This is often the result of learning a second lg when one‟s first lg are not fully developed. 6. morpheme: morphemes are the smallest units of lg that carry meaning.

7. grammatical morpheme: morphemes are the smallest units of lg that carry meaning. A simple word is a morpheme, for example, book, but when we talk about “grammatical morpheme” we are usually referring to smaller units which are added to words to alter their meaning (for example, the –s in books to indicate plural) or faction words (for example the ) which are ordinarity attached to another word.

8. longitudinal study: a study in which the same learner are studied over a period of time. This contrasts with cross-sectional studies.

9. cross-sectional study: a research method in which subjects at different ages and stages of development are studied. Inferences about sequences which would apply to the development of individual learners are sometimes drawn from cross-sectional studies. This contrasts with longitudinal studies.

10. formulaic chunks: Also called formulaic pattern or routines. These are expressions which are learned as un analyzed wholes of „chunks‟ for example, „How old are you?‟

11. child-directed speech: the lg which caretakers address to children. In some cases, this lg is simpler than that which is addressed to adults and also may involve slower speech, more repetition, and a large number of questions.

12. the critical period: the proposal that there is a specific and limited time period for lg acquisition.

13. rate of development: the speech at which learners progress in their lg development.

14.zone of proximal development: the level of performance which a learner is capable of when there is support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor.

15. target language: the lg which is being learned, whether it is the first lg or a second lg. 16. competence: Chomsky used this term to refer to knowledge of lg.

17. performance: which is the way a person actually uses lg –whether for speaking, listening or writing.

18. acquisition: it is most often used interchangeably with lg learning. However, for some researchers, most notably Stephen Krashen, acquisition is contrasted with learning. According to Krashen, acquisition represents „unconscious‟ learning, which takes place when attention is focused on meaning rather than lg form.

19. learning: it is a general one which simply refers to a learner‟s developing knowledge of the target lg. In Stephen Krashen‟s terms, however, „learning‟ is contrasted with „acquisition‟, and is

described as a „conscious‟ process which occurs when the learner‟s objective is to learn about the lg itself, rather than to understand messages which are conveyed through the lg.

20. comprehensible input: a term introduced by Stephen Krashen to refer to lg which a learner can understand. The lg may be comprehensible in part because of clues such as gestures, situation, or prior information.

21. affect: it refers to such things as motive, needs, attitudes, and emotional states.

22. information processing: this psychological theory compares the human brain to a computer. It includes the idea that the brain has a very large capacity to store information in the long term, but a more limited capacity for information which requires our attention. After a certain of practice, things which at the first required attention become automatic, leaving more attention available for focus on sth else.

23. noticing: The process by which learners pay conscious attention to linguistic features in the input.

24. backsliding: The production of errors representing an early stage of development. In other words, backsliding refers to the regular reappearance of features of a learner‟s interlanguage which were thought to have disappeared. For example, initially learners may display a high level of accuracy and begin to produce irregular past „ate‟.

25. interaction: the way in which a lg is used by interlocutors.

26. lockstep classroom: where the course of instruction is teacher-centered and heavily programmed.

27. intelligence: it refers to performance on certain kinds of tests.

28. extroversion/introversion (外向/内向): extroverts are sociable, risk-taking, lively, and active; introverts are quiet and prefer non-social activities.

29. risk-taking: Risk-takers show less hesitance, are more willing to use complex language, and are more tolerant of errors. They are less likely to rehearse before speaking.

30. tolerance of ambiguity: It entails an ability to deal with ambiguous new stimuli without frustration and without appeals to authority. It allows for indeterminate rather than rigid categorization.

31. empathy: This concerns the ability to put oneself in the position of another person in order to understand him or her better. Empathy is thought to contribute to the attitudes we have towards a person or group with a different language and culture from our own, and it may contribute to the degree of success with which a person learns another language.

32. self-esteem: This refers to the degree to which individuals feel confident and believe themselves to be significant people.

33. inhibition: The extent to which individuals build defenses to protect their egos. People vary in how adaptive their „language egos‟ are, i.e. how able they are to deal with the identity conflict involved in L2 learning. It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-taking which is necessary for progress in language learning.

34. learning style: it has been used to describe an individual‟s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.

35. interlanguage: the learner‟s developing second lg knowledge. It may have characteristics of the learner‟s first lg, characteristics of the second lg, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occure in all or some interlg systems. Interlges are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses

about the second lg.

36. natural settings for language learning: the learner is exposed to the lg at work or in social interaction or if the learner is a child. in a school where most of the other children are native speakers of the target lg and where the instruction is directed toward native speakers rather than loward learners of lg.

37. instructional settings for language learning: where the lg is being taught to a group of second or foreign lg learners. The focus is on the lg itself. The goal of teacher is to see it that students learn the vocabulary and grammatical rules of target lg. goal of learners in such course is often to pass an examination.

38. display question: a question to which the asker already knows the answer. Teachers often ask these questions (for example, what color is your shirt?) not because they are genuinely interested in the answer, but ratter, to get the learner to display his/her knowledge of the lg.

39. genuine question: in contrast to display questions, genuine auestions are asked when there is a facus on information: the asker does not know the answer in advance (for example, what did you do at the weekend?)

40. qualitative research: research which used procedures that make use of qualitative data such as observations, interviews, or participant observation.

41. quantitative research: research which used procedures which gather data in numberial form. 42. uptake: a learner‟s immediate response to corrective feedback on his/her utterances.

43. fossilization: interlg patterns which seem not to change, even after extended exposure to or instruction in the target lg. The term may also be used to refer to errors which occur, somewhat unexpectedlly, in the second lg performance of proficient speakers when they are tired or under pressure.

44. communicative competence: the ability to use lg in a variety of settings, taking into account relationship between speakers and differences in situations. The term has sometimes been interpreted as the ability to convey messages in spite of a lack of grammatical accuracy.